{"id":3082,"date":"2022-06-01T12:00:32","date_gmt":"2022-06-01T16:00:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/americancompass.beckandstone.com\/introducing-pluralism-to-public-schooling\/"},"modified":"2022-11-07T15:09:55","modified_gmt":"2022-11-07T20:09:55","slug":"introducing-pluralism-to-public-schooling","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/americancompass.org\/introducing-pluralism-to-public-schooling\/","title":{"rendered":"Introducing Pluralism to Public Schooling"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

America\u2019s schools do not, as a rule, prepare the next generation to build decent lives and find opportunity. Policymakers have known this since at least 1966, when sociologist James Coleman produced the federal government\u2019s Equality of Educational Opportunity <\/em>report<\/a>. Coleman famously found that students\u2019 socioeconomic backgrounds predicted their educational outcomes, and that most schools failed to overcome this \u201cfamily effect.\u201d His report was a blow to the collective hope that education would inevitably create opportunity and social mobility.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Since then, the federal government, state and local governments, and major philanthropies have rolled up their sleeves to help. Sometimes their efforts bear fruit. For instance, innovative districts (e.g., Indianapolis<\/a>, Chicago<\/a>, Miami-Dade<\/a>, San Antonio<\/a>) are amping up academic programs and diversifying schools to good effect; some charter school networks virtually erase<\/a> the typical learning gaps between white students and students of color; some states\u2019 tax credit programs significantly improve<\/a> college completion rates<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

But despite important successes, far too many schools routinely under-challenge students \u2014especially low-income students. The aptly named Opportunity Myth report<\/a> (2018) showed, with devastating detail, that most American students spend most of their school time on below-grade-level assignments <\/em>accompanied by low expectations from teachers:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Most students\u2014and especially students of color, those from low-income families, those with mild to moderate disabilities, and English language learners\u2014spent the vast majority of their school days missing out on four crucial resources: grade-appropriate assignments, strong instruction, deep engagement, and teachers with high expectations. Students spent more than 500 hours per school year on assignments that weren\u2019t appropriate for their grade and with instruction that didn\u2019t ask enough of them\u2014the equivalent of six months of wasted class time in each core subject.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

To make matters worse, traditional market signals have broken down. High school diplomas, for instance, no longer indicate even basic competence in reading and math, much less career and college readiness. Thus, despite rising graduation rates, what counts as a \u201cdiploma\u201d varies substantially<\/a> across the country and even within some states.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What about using test scores? The majority <\/em>of 12th<\/sup> graders earn ACT and SAT scores that fail to meet<\/a> the predictive bar for college-level success. Even GPAs, once stable predictors<\/a> of educational attainment, have succumbed to apparent inflation<\/a>, at least at the national level<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The combination of easy coursework and the breakdown of clear signals of preparedness not only sells our students short but carries devastating financial and professional consequences. The most useful measure of K\u201312 achievement might well be the ability to take credit-bearing courses<\/em> in community college. A high school diploma should, at the very least, indicate preparedness for entry-level courses in post-secondary programs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sadly, it does not. Across all post-secondary institutions, almost half (43%) of high school graduates took remedial courses in 2015-16. In community colleges, though, a full 63% did<\/a>. In some places, the statistics are even more dire. The percentage of freshman at Baltimore City Community College who can take credit-bearing courses<\/a>? 13%. Spending Pell grants on remedial courses is a fast track to dropping out<\/a> without a marketable credential. As a poignant W.T. Grant Foundation report<\/a> noted in 2015:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Many community college students attain no credentials. Researchers often call this \u201csome college.\u201d Although many community college students have discovered and attained sub-baccalaureate credentials, almost half have no credential eight years after high school.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

There are no easy solutions. But a review of research and practices in the United States and abroad suggests that three policy levers, pulled individually or (better still) simultaneously, can accelerate students\u2019 path to opportunity once they leave high school. The three levers reflect the practices of high-performing school systems in democracies around the world\u2014and, where practiced, in our own.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lever #1: Support Distinctive School Communities<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Most democracies fund a wide variety of school types<\/a>. This is justified in part because schools are inherently meaning-making institutions: the selection of curricula, the disciplinary code, the relationships between teachers and parents, even the topics that are considered off-limits, reflect underlying values, whether explicit or tacit. To avoid establishing orthodoxy, many governments choose to fund a variety of institutions and hold them all accountable.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

But there is a pragmatic reason for doing so, too: a positive, normative school culture has an independent impact on student outcomes. Being part of \u201cdistinctive educational communities in which pupils and teachers share a common ethos<\/em>\u201d vastly increases<\/a> the odds of students acquiring academic and civic knowledge, skills, and sensibilities. As education scholar Charles Glenn put it<\/a>, \u201cSchools with a distinctive identity . . . offer educational advantages deriving from their clarity of focus.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The good news is that any kind <\/em>of school can be or become a \u201cthick\u201d community of meaning. This may be most obvious in the case of religious schools, as Anthony Bryk found when investigating Catholic high schools<\/a>, but it readily pertains to charter schools and district schools, too. For instance, Scott Seider observed<\/a> the positive impact of shared vocabulary and norms in three very distinctive charter schools in Boston. The 100 distinctive high schools that Mayor Michael Bloomberg scaled up in New York City generated<\/a> \u201clarge, positive impacts on students\u2019 secondary school and college outcomes.\u201d As a final example, one of the key factors in Miami-Dade\u2019s improving test scores is its abundance of distinctive schools<\/a>\u2014from Hebrew charter schools to small district-based academies and tax-credit-supported Catholic schools.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In fact, most democracies take school culture so seriously that they fund and actively encourage<\/a> distinctive schools, and hold them to the same academic standards in a regime known as \u201ceducational pluralism<\/a>.\u201d As but two examples, the Netherlands<\/a> built the freedom to attend distinctive schools into its national constitution and therefore funds 36 different school types; the UK\u2019s Department of Education<\/a> requires schools to publicly post their mission statements as a condition of funding. School culture is also part of both countries\u2019 accountability regime<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The mechanisms through which school culture supports students\u2019 civic and academic outcomes are not entirely understood. It may have to do with social capital generated by alignment between parents and teachers, the way in which normative values help students make sense of success and failure alike, or the stable coherence between words and practices. Yet the benefits persist, regardless of the precise mechanism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

State and local policymakers can pursue a range of measures that enable multiple avenues to diverse schools. At the state level, these could include robust charter school laws<\/a> and private school scholarship funds<\/a> via vouchers or education tax credits<\/a>. Local laws should enable within-district options<\/a> for families rather than relying exclusively<\/a> on residential assignments. State and local leaders should also ensure<\/a> nimble, well-funded transportation systems<\/a> so that school options make sense for low-income families<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lever #2: Require Content-Rich Exit Exams and Curricula<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Just as important as facilitating distinctive schools is ensuring that all of them provide consistently rigorous instruction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

High-performing school systems around the world<\/a> (e.g., the UK, the Netherlands, Finland, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, and others) require students<\/a> to master serious academic content. They also assess mastery of this content through rigorous exams<\/a>, the results of which provide clear signals about students\u2019 strengths and weaknesses. Routine exposure<\/a> to rigorous, knowledge-rich curriculum and assessments<\/a> not only provides signals of preparedness; it also helps to narrow achievement gaps<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Why doesn\u2019t the United States follow suit? There are many causes, chief among them the fact that 100 years ago<\/a>, our school systems jettisoned<\/a> the liberal arts K\u201312 curriculum in favor of disaggregated \u201cskills.\u201d The process approach (\u201clearning how to learn\u201d instead of<\/a> \u201clearning something in particular\u201d) may work reasonably well for students from well-resourced homes, but a skills-only curriculum has been devastating for low-income students<\/a> who enter school with constrained background knowledge about the world<\/a>. Furthermore, the skills-only assessment regime inadvertently encourages teachers to favor test preparation<\/a> over engaging, if more difficult, classroom discussions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are signs of hope, however. Thanks to the infusion of recent research confirming the cost-neutral academic benefits of high-quality curriculum, local and state educational leaders have begun to prioritize<\/a> the use of high-quality curricula. Some are reinforcing the shift through curriculum-aligned state tests. For example, Louisiana is using<\/a> ESSA\u2019s federal pilot authority exemption (the Innovative Assessment Demonstration Authority<\/a>) to administer tests<\/a> that align directly to two of the state\u2019s commonly used English Language Arts curricula (Guidebooks<\/em> and Wit & Wisdom<\/em>). This initiative, currently focused on middle school students, tests the usual ELA skills, but also asks students to think deeply about specific sources they\u2019ve read in class, integrate new but related content thoughtfully, and synthesize ideas in an end-of-grade essay.1<\/a><\/sup>The Johns Hopkins Institute for Education Policy is one of several partners to the Louisiana Department of Education in the test design.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Districts need not wait for a state initiative, though. In 1997, Chicago Public Schools put the academically rigorous International Baccalaureate Diploma Program in 13 of its extremely low-performing high schools. Students who went through all four years were 40% more likely<\/em> to attend college than their peers. Why? The rigorous four-year program enabled students to develop a \u201cstrong academic identity.\u201d Interviews with the program\u2019s graduates indicate<\/a> that they acquired the academic background and skills to perform with confidence in college, even though only 20% of the students actually earned the international diploma (the national rate is 70%). So impressive were these results, that then-Mayor Rahm Emmanuel made scaling up International Baccalaureate programs a priority of his tenure<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Content-aligned assessments not only elevate classroom instruction; they also provide meaningful signals about a student\u2019s preparedness to enter college or a career after graduation. The combination of rigorous instruction and externally validated \u201cexit exams\u201d would go a long way to creating opportunity for our most disadvantaged students\u2014and give all students a shot at fulfilling their dreams.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Federal and state policymakers can take steps to encourage curricular experimentation and adapt best practices. The U.S. Department of Education should expand the scope of the Innovative Assessment Demonstration Authority to more than the currently allowed seven states, and allocate funding to enable participation. Meanwhile, state policymakers should adapt the successful models of other states, such as Louisiana\u2019s approach<\/a> to promoting high-quality curricular choices aligned with professional development or the \u201cMassachusetts miracle<\/a>\u201d of the 1990s that aligned<\/a> content-rich curricula, commensurate assessments, and teacher credentialing<\/a> to form the highest-performing public education system in the country.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Policymakers should also be attuned to quality and preparation of their teachers to adopt content-rich curricula. Without a suitable teaching corps, even the best-designed curricular reforms will fail in practice. Systems must routinely allocate dollars<\/a> to curriculum-aligned<\/em> professional development, to ensure fidelity of implementation. State leaders should also consider aligning<\/a> teacher preparation programs to high-quality materials use<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lever #3: Bring Career and Technical Education into the Same Equation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

High-quality curriculum and assessments must also pertain to students bound for careers rather than to college. In the nations that do it best, rigorous testing and curricula are not singularly oriented toward college preparation and do not come at the expense of work-focused education. In fact, many of these nations offer high-quality vocational pathways in upper secondary school. They manage to offer both challenging coursework and differentiated career pathways for everyone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

But the American education system fails miserably in this regard. As my colleague Al Passarella noted in a policy brief on career and technical education<\/a> (CTE), the number of students who enroll in CTE programs is quite small:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n

At roughly 6%, U.S. student enrollment in CTE programming is paltry by international standards<\/a>: 42% of students the United Kingdom are enrolled in CTE (internationally known as vocational training), 59% in Germany, 64% in Switzerland, and 25% in Japan. While the vast majority of high schools (94%) in the United States offer CTE courses, only 4% of them are within specialized career\/technical high schools, defined as schools in which all students participate in some form of CTE programming.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

Besides low participation, CTE programs also suffer<\/a> from uneven quality and uncertain prestige; they disproportionately enroll students from low-income households. These unfortunate realities merely compound the damage done by weak curriculum and instruction across the entire K\u201312 journey.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Policymakers can turn this around by applying the same strategy of rigorous instruction and aligned assessments\u2014namely through apprenticeships and industry-ready credentialing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Effective CTE programs can occur at the local or state level, but often require both federal funding and significant philanthropic support. Delaware Pathways, for instance, is a public-private initiative that brings industry-relevant CTE programs to almost every high school in the state. The programs include relevant work experience and result in industry-ready credentials. Early findings suggest positive outcomes<\/a> for graduates of the program. Georgia\u2019s Construction Ready<\/a> offers another promising model that aligns high school courses to proficiency in the construction trades; connects students to worksite experiences; and introduces young people to industry leaders. Its leadership is designing integrated vertical pathways that span the K\u201312 continuum\u2014in place in five districts already\u2014and should be analyzed for long-term effect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Local districts, charters, and private schools, too, can adapt rigorous programs such as International Baccalaureate Career Pathways (IBCP). Like its Diploma Program noted above, the IBCP programs require rigorous academic inquiry<\/a> in the major subjects alongside career coursework that prepares students for local or regional industries. The IBCP has not yet been evaluated for impact but is likely to show benefits to participants because of its built-in quality control, academic rigor, and external assessments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Districts can also partner with local business communities and universities to design innovative, high-impact schools. Indianapolis\u2019s Purdue Polytechnic High School, for instance, \u201cexists to create a pipeline to post-secondary success for underrepresented minority students, for whom rising graduation rates do not equal workforce participation.\u201d Indiana businesses provide STEM \u201cchallenges\u201d that students solve through four- to six-week engagements. The coursework operates on a mastery basis, so that students can demonstrate competence in an academic subject at their own pace. Early findings suggest it works<\/a>: 55% of sophomores<\/em> met the College Board\u2019s benchmark criteria for college readiness. The state\u2019s average is 40%.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Another interesting partnership is underway in Illinois: private high schools, run by trade unions, that may eventually be supported<\/a> through the state\u2019s education tax credit program. The initiative, called the Untapped Potential Project<\/a>, aims to \u201coffer rigorous academic coursework blended with project-based technical training in a range of industries [\u2026] to ensure every student graduates prepared for postsecondary success and at least one employable technical skill.\u201d Its first school will open during academic year 2022\u201323.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Such models, and others like them, indicate that systems in the United States can provide innovative, high quality, career pathways for young people. While there are many factors<\/a> in effective CTE programs, they must at least<\/em> be academically robust and lead to either workforce-ready credentials or credit-bearing college coursework.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Creating and sustaining strong CTE pathways is a long-term proposition. It requires years as well as overlapping networks of support (e.g., K\u201312 systems, universities, philanthropies, and the business community). But state policymakers can immediately pursue reforms that enable the creation and ensure the quality of CTE programs. For instance, they can leverage existing education tax credit policies to support innovative models. They can ensure that all CTE programs are academically challenging and<\/em> externally assessed by industry-ready credentials or exit exams, as in the inclusion of CTE programs<\/a> in New York\u2019s Regents Exams.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

* * *<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Since the Revolutionary War, the United States has tasked its education systems<\/a> with equalizing opportunity and forming democratic citizens. Indeed, both aims run through our laws, our public documents, and our court decisions. It is true that our country has yet to achieve fully Jefferson\u2019s hope<\/a> that \u201cthose persons, whom nature hath endowed with genius and virtue\u201d to be \u201crendered by liberal education worthy to receive, and able to guard the sacred deposit of the rights and liberties of their fellow citizens, and that they should be called to that charge without regard to wealth, birth or other accidental condition or circumstance<\/em>\u201d [italics added]. However, policymakers can accelerate social mobility and civic formation by focusing relentlessly on three basic but transformational moves. Content-rich curriculum and aligned assessments, industry-ready career pathways, and distinctive school cultures remain hallmarks of successful school systems around the world. They work in our country, too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[Correction: Three block quotations were not offset when this essay was originally published. This has been corrected.]<\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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